According to Lindblom ( 1977), the basic fact that all governments, whether Left or Right, need a healthy economy to provide jobs and welfare support, forces them to adopt measures that are in the interests of business without business having to take any observable action. It is abundantly clear, however, that business groups do enjoy a structural advantage over other groups-one that exacerbates the collective action problems suffered by environmental groups. The precise manner and extent to which the state is captured by sectional groups is disputed hotly among political scientists (Dunleavy and O'Leary 1987). Some routinely have more of ‘a say’ than others in determining the content of policy by ‘capturing’ the regulatory process. However, not all interest groups enjoy the same level of influence or political power. Lowi argued that whereas distributive policies (e.g., welfare programs) produce close, dependent relationships between the state and interest groups, regulatory policies produce more conflictual forms of politics. Environmental policy is, therefore, inherently regulatory in nature, although regulation inevitably has distributive and redistributive consequences (Lowi 1972). Jordan, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001 1.2 The Need for Regulationīecause environmental damage has its origins in otherwise socially legitimate activities like energy and food production, the role of the state is often to police the consumption of public goods by limiting the level of damage that one section of society can impose upon others. This definition was produced because the first higher order LP11 mode is strongly affected by fiber length and curvature near cutoff.Ĭutoff wavelength values for primary coated fiber range from 1.1 to 1.28 μm for single-mode fiber designed for operation in the 1.3 μm wavelength region in order to avoid modal noise and dispersion problems.A. Thus for step index fiber where Vc = 2.405, the cutoff wavelength is given byĪn effective cutoff wavelength has been defined which is obtained from a 2 m length of fiber containing a single 14 cm radius loop. Hence λc is the wavelength above which a particular fiber becomes single-moded. Where Vc is the cutoff normalized frequency. (2.70) that single-mode operation only occurs above a theoretical cutoff wavelength λc given by An optical fiber that is single-moded at a particular wavelength may have two or more modes at wavelengths lower than the cutoff wavelength. Below cut-off, the fiber will transmit more than one mode. The Cutoff wavelength of a single mode fiber is the wavelength above which the fiber propagates only the fundamental mode.